History Notes

Ancient India Class 01

General discussion about exam and history (5:08 PM)

• Books:
• Ancient history by RS Sharma.
• Ancient and early medieval history by Upender Singh(selectively).
• Class XIth Tamil Nadu board book.
• History:
• Pre-history- The period before written records.
• Proto-history- A period during which civilization had some written record but yet to be understood, for example, the Indus Valley civilization.
• Historical period(Ancient, Medieval, Modern).

Sources of History (5:32 PM)

• Written records:
• Vedas.
• Epics.
• Purans.
• Sangam Literature.
• Buddist and Jain literature.
• Kanada and Telegu literature.
• Foreign travellers.
• Epigraphy-Dating the inscriptions and their classifications.
• Archaeology.
• Numismatic art-(study of coins).
• Population genetics.

Pre-Historical Period (5:52 PM)

• The classification of the stone age is based on geological age, subsistence base, and stone tools.
• The pre-Historical Period can be divided into 3 phases:
• Paleolithic Age:
• It can be divided into 3 ages lower Paleolithic age(2 million years ago- 100,000 BC), Middle Paleolithic age(100,000 BC- 40,000 BC), Upper Paleolithic age(40,000-10,000 BC).
• Early life started at the foothills of mountains where rivers were narrow and easy to cross.
• Caves were natural places for residence.
• The man survived on animal hunting and food-gathering activities.
• Dead persons were left without performing any rituals.
• The stone tools were irregularly shaped and over time, they became more regular.
• Some important locations are Ballen Valley in UP, Deccan Plateau, Bhimbetka in MP, Munger & Rajgir in Bihar, Kurnool, and Nagarjunkonda in Andra, and Pallavaram valley in Tamil Nadu, among others.
• Mesolithic. Age:
• Hunting gathering stone age marked by the use of microliths.
• Taming of animals had also started.
• The environmental condition became more suitable because of the warming of the climate.
• The earliest sign of agriculture is found in the mesolithic age.
• Wheat and Barley were grown.
• The Fist evidence of the disposal of the dead in the form of burials is found at rock shelters of Mirzapur UP, in the mesolithic age.
• Mesolithic art included cave paintings with descriptions of day-to-day life.
• Some of the important sites are Bhimbetka in MP, Bagor in Rajasthan, Lotheswar, and Ratanpur in Gujrat, etc.
• Neolithic Age:
• This age marked the beginning of food production.
• Domestication of Plants and animals occurred on a large scale.
• There was a shift in the subsistence strategy from hunting and gathering to animal rearing and agriculture.
• This age also marks the beginning of 1st village Mehergarh in Baluchistan, Pakistan.
• The most important sites are Burzohum in Kashmir (Domestic dogs were buried along with their master, it is also famous for its underground pits), Mahagraha in UP(the oldest evidence of rice cultivation anywhere in the world), Chirang in Bihar(Weapons made of bones have also been found).
• Some sites of Karnataka such as Brahamgiri, Muski, and Hallur are neolithic sites known for the domestication of sheep and goats.

Chalcolithic age(6.47 PM):

• This age marks the emergence of 1st metal, that is copper along with stone tools.
• Chalcolithic age was:
• Agricultural and animal rearing.
• Use of Pottery.
• Large rural settlements.
• Worship of deities.
• Infant mortality was very high as is evident from the burial of a large number of children in some chalcolithic sites.
• Important sites are:
• Ahar in Rajasthan.
• Daimabad in Maharastra.
• Malwa in MP.
• Sonpur in Bihar.
• Jorwe in Maharastra.

Indus Valley civilization (7:05 PM)

• In 1872 Alexander Cunningham, the DG of the newly established ASI found the ruins of Harappa.
• IN 1924, a formal announcement of a new civilization was done by John Marshall.
• IVC is considered one of the oldest and greatest civilizations in the history of mankind.
• More than 14000 settlements have been discovered, but excavation has occurred in only a few of them.
• IVC can be divided into 3 phases:
• Early Phase (3300-2600 BC, Rural)
• Mature Phase (2600BC-1900 BC, Urban).
• Late Harappan Phase(1900BC-1300 BC, Rural)
• The Civilization centred around the northwest of India and sites have been found in many parts of the country as well Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• Urban features of IVC:
• Most of the cities were divided into 2 parts, A higher platform knowns as a citadel and a lower town.
• However, Dholavira represents 3-tier structures.
• The Municipal government places a high priority on hygiene like many cities like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro demonstrates the world's 1st known sanitization system.
• Individual homes drew water from the well, while waste water was directed to the covered drains from the main street.
• Even the smallest houses were connected to the sanitation system.
• Many public infrastructures have been found such as public baths, granaries, and warehouses.
• The city was developed in a planned manner, with roads cutting at a right angle.
• People were serious about their privacy, example windows and doors of the houses did not open to the main roads
• Economy:
• Agriculture was the most important economic activity.
• The most important crops were wheat, Barley, Cotton, Ragi, peas, etc.
• Trading was also an important economic activity.
• People traded with contemporary civilizations such as Mesopotamia.
• Standard weights and measures were used.
• The consistency of brick size suggests unity across various urban areas.
• Harrapans are known for seal carvings.
• It included the cutting of patterns into the bottom face of a seal which may have been used for stamping goods.
• Seals decorated with animal figures like elephants, and tigers have been discovered in many cities.
• IVC is considered a bronze age society as people had developed techniques in metallurgy and signs of working with copper, bronze, lead, and tin were known.
• Iron was not known.
• They also engaged in shell working which was used in art and craft.
• Many goods were traded such as lead and copper from another part of India, Precious stones from Oman and Mesopotamia, Jade from China, Gold, silver, and metals from different parts of the world.
• Society and religion:
• Even though Harappan scripts have not been deciphered and hence social setup and religion remain a topic of speculation.
• Interpretation of motifs founds on the seal does tell us about their religious beliefs, for example, worship of fertility goddess, Proto-shiva seal among others.
• Even though there was inequality in society, this inequality was not very huge.
• Political setup:
• There are 2 theories regarding political setup:
• A single state encompassing all cities- This is supported by similarities of artefacts, planned settlements, standards weight, and measurement.
• Another theory suggests various centres of power were integrated into a decentralized struggle.
• Harrapan did not invest in large buildings and monuments.
• They may not have maintained large armies to defend themselves.
• It is considered civilization was peaceful and did not consider warfare.

The topic for the next class: IVC(to continue) and Vedic civilization.

Ancient India Class 02

PYQ discussion from IVC (5:08 PM)

• To what extent has the urban planning and culture of the Indus Valley Civilization provided inputs to present-day urbanization? Discuss. (10 Marks/150 Words).

The decline of IVC (5:23 PM)

• The civilization declined around 1800 BC.
• By 1700 BC most of the cities were abandoned.
• An earlier theory suggested a nomadic Indo-European tribe called Aryans invaded and conquered IVC.
• However, this theory has been rejected by most historians.
• The most accepted theory is that IVC declined because of Climate change.
• For example, the sifting of monsoon winds, drought in the Saraswati river, and in general a prolonged drought led to migration towards east and south directions, Gradually civilization declined.

Profile of Major cities of IVC (5.31 PM)

• Harappa: 
• The first city that was discovered.
• It is situated on the banks of the Ravi river now in Pakistan.
• Many potteries and sandstone statues of Human Anatomy, Copper bullock carts, terracotta figures, and granaries have been found.
• Railways engineers found bricks that were used in the construction of railways in the 19th century.
• Mohenjodaro:
• 2nd a city is to be discovered.
• Many features such as a great bath, granaries, a unicorn seal, and dancing girl statute of bronze, a Pashupati seal, and a statue of the Philosopher king.
• It is located on the Indus river now in Pakistan.
• Dholavira:
• Recently inducted in UNSECO world heritage site.
• It is located in Gujarat.
• It is known for its efficient water management system with a giant water reservoir.
• It is the only city to be divided into 3 parts, other cities are mainly divided into 2 parts.
• Banawali:
• It is in Haryana.
• A well-planned township in a radial pattern.
• A terracotta plough model has been discovered here.
• A large amount of Barley grains has also been found.
• Surkotada:
• A coastal city currently located in Gujrat.
• Very famous for hours bones.
• Lothal:
• It is located in Gujarat.
• It was a port town with a dockyard, fire altars, a game similar to chess, Rice husk amount others been discovered here.
• Kalibangan:
• Located in  Rajasthan on the bank of river Ghaggar.
• It has fire laters, animal bones, and evidence of earthquakes has also been found here.
• Chanhudaro:
• Located in Pakistan.
• Known for bangles factory.
• Shorthughai:
• It was a trading outpost near the Oxus river.
• It has been discovered here a mine of Lapis Lazuli.
• Manda:
• The northernmost site of IVC is located in Jammu and Kashmir.
• Suktagandor:
• It is the westernmost site of IVC.
• Kot diji:
• It is in pakistahn, opposite to mohanjudaro.
• Alamgirpur:
• It is the easternmost site of IVC.

Vedic Age (6:12 PM)

• Sources about the Vedic age:
• The only written source available is the Vedas.
• Vedas have the status of shruti(which has been heard).
• Compared to shruti, the smriti text includes Puranas, Epics, Dhramshartas, and Vedangas.
• Rig Veda:
• It is the oldest and contains the world's oldest surviving poetry.
• It is a collection of Hymns(a collection of mantras) arranged in 10 books(mandalas).
• Sam Veda:
• Borrows from Rig Veda and arrange them with Musical notation.
• However many of the original Melodies are lost.
• Yajurveda:
• It deals with the performance of rituals.
• Atharvaveda:
• It is the latest Veda that includes spells and charms, which reflect popular beliefs and practices.
• Each Veda has 4 parts- Samhita, Brahman, Aranyak, and Upnishad.
• The early Vedic age includes a compilation of the Samhita portion of Rig Veda and the later Vedic age signifies the rest of the Vedic corpus literature.
• Identity of Aryans:
• The term Aryan is a linguistic term and signifies a group of people who spoke similar languages.
• Aryan tribes domesticated horses, and use them on a large scale.
• They also used spoked wheel chariots.
• Early use of Iron.
• Cult of Fire and Soma(considered as mater of Plants and healer of diseases).
• Animal sacrifices including the sacrifice of horses.
• Cremation of dead bodies.
• Aryan settled around Indus and its tributaries and was called Sapt Sindhu, Jhelum was called Vitasta, Chenab was called Asikni, Ravi was called Parushni, Beas was called Vipah and Sutlej was called Shutudri.
• Aryan Tribes:
• In Rig Veda, dozens of tribes are mentioned.
• 5 tribes are considered important and collectively known as Panchjana(Yadu, Turvasha, Puru, Anu, and Druvyu ).
• Purus and Bharat were the most dominant tribes.
• Battle of 10 kings(Dasrajna) where the Bharat Cheif Sudas defeated an alliance of 10 tribes on the bank of river Parushni.
• Later Bharat joined an alliance with Puru and this alliance was now called Kuru.
• Kuru allied with Panchal and ruled the northern part of the country for many years.
• Dasa and Dasyu are mentioned and are shown as enemies of Arya, similarly, Simyu and Kikat are also considered the enemy.
• Economy:
• Agriculture was known, however animal rearing was the most important economic activity.
• Ashwa(Horse) is maintained most of the time in Rig Veda followed by Gau(Cow).
• Many of the wars were fought over cows- Gavisthi
• Polity:
• There was a tribal chiefdom with a chief called Rajan.
• The position of Rajan was heredity, however, he did not enjoy unlimited power, and his power was limited by tribal assemblies such as Sabha, Samiti, and Vidhata.
• Women could participate in these tribal assemblies.
• There was no regular taxation, people offered voluntary offerings to Rajan which was called Bali.
• Spoils of war were shared with the entire tribe.
• Rajan did not maintain a standing army.
• Senani and Purothi were other important functionaries.
• Society and Religion:
• Kinship was the basis of social organization.
• The primary loyalty was to the tribe not to a territory.
• There were many units of Divison such as Jan, Vis, Kul, and Gram.
• The Varna system emerged in the later part of the early Vedic age.
• The 10th Mandala of Rig Veda contains the Purushsukta which mentioned 4 social categories, even though the team Varna is not mentioned.
• Varna's system was not rigid in the early Vedic age and it may have been decided on basis of occupation.
• Society was patriarchally headed by the father.
• The birth of a son was desirable, however, women had the right to education and participated in tribal assemblies.
• Widow remarriage was allowed, but child marriage was mostly absent.
• Religion:
• The term dharma is different from religion, it refers to the ideal conduct of a person living in a society.
• Dharma would be in line with universal natural law.
• People were nature worshipers, and forces of nature were personified(Indra mentioned most of the time in rig Veda is the god of rain and also blessed before the war, he was also called Purandar), Agni, Varun, and Som were another important gods.
• Many goddesses are also mentioned such as Usha, Aditi, and Saraswati.
• People prayed in chorus with the recitation of prayers and performance of sacrifices.

The topic of the next class: Later Vedic age.

Ancient India Class 03

Later Vedic Age (1100-600 BC) (5:09 PM)

• Aryans expanding to whole of ganga yamuna doab region.
• Kurus occupied the region around Hastnapur and adjoining areas.
• This age signifies the faint beginning of town life, for example, Hastinapur, Kosambhi, Mathura, Ayodhya, and Indraprastha were some of the early towns.
• The use of Iron occurred on an extensive scale.
• Economy:
• Agriculture became the most important activity.
• The term for Iron is Shyam Ayas.
• Shatpat Brahaman's commentary in Yajurveda speaks at length about farming rituals.
• This age also witnessed diverse art and craft tradition.
• Polity:
• The tribal authority became territorial.
• The position of Rajan became powerful.
• Tribal assemblies continued but now were controlled by warriors and brahmans.
• Bali became obligatory.
• An official known as "Sangrihitri" was appointed to collect taxes and tributes.
• 3 sacrifices became very popular:
• Aswamegha- unquestioned control over an area in which the royal horse ran uninterrupted.
• Raj Suya- it occurred during coronations for conferring the supreme powers on the king.
• Vajpeya- A chariot race in which the royal chariot was made to win against the kinsmen of the king.
• Society:
• Varna's system became rigid.
• 4th Varna was denied both Upnayana and Reciting Gayatri Mantra.
• Upanayana provided the status Dwaja(Twice born).
• The position of women declined.
• they were no longer allowed in tribal assemblies.
• Women were also denied both Upnayana and Reciting Gayatri Mantra.
• The institution of Gotra(a place where cattle belonging to the entire clan are kept and later signified descent from a common ancestor) emerged during this period.
• Gotra Endogamy was not allowed.
• The concept of 4 Ashram also immersed and signified life in 4 phases- Gristha(household life), Brahamancharya(to attain knowledge), Vanaprastha(partial renunciation), and Sanyasa( partial renunciation).
• Religion:
• Cult of sacrifice became more important than reciting prayers.
• Sacrifier was called Jajaman.
• Indra and Agni lost their importance and Prajapati, Rudra and Vishnu emerged as the main gods.
• Towards the end of the Vedic period, there was a strong reaction to priestly dominance which led to the compilation of many Upanishads that criticized rituals and emphasized on right lives and knowledge
• These settlements with access to agricultural produce, regular taxation, and extensive use of iron led to the emergence of small territorial states called Janpads.
• the term Janpad for the 1st time is mentioned in Brahaman literature around 800 BC.
• Some of these Janpads became larger kingdoms and were called Mahajanpads.

Mahajanpada period (600-300 BC) (6:12 PM)

• Sources:
• Epics.
• Puranas.
• Dhramsastra.
• Buddhist Literature:
• The earliest Buddhist literature is called Tripitaka:
• Sutta Pitaka:
• It contains a saying of Buddha himself.
• Complied just after the death of Buddha.
• Vinay Pitaka:
• Rule of monks and nuns of Buddhist sangha.
• It also contains the list of transgressions called Pratimokha and atonement for them.
• Abhidhamma Pitaka:
• It is a later work and contains philosophical enquires along with answers.
• Jatka stories:
• Stories of the previous birth of Buddha.
• Theragatha and Therigatha:
• Songs from Buddhist monks and nuns.
• Therigatha is the oldest text written in India from the perspective of women.
• Jains literature:
• They are collectively known as Siddhanta or Agam.
• Some early works are Bhagwati Sutra and Parishishtparvam among others.
• Ashtadhyayi by Panini:
• Panini was a Grammarian and his work Ashtadhyayi is one of the most intellectual achievements of ancient India.
• He belonged to the Gandhara region and studied at the university of Taxila.
• Even though it is a book of grammar it deals with places, people,c customs, coins, weights, and measures.
• Ancient Text mentioned 16 Mahajanpads.

16 Mahajanpads (6.52 PM)

• Diagramatic representation for Mahajanpadas:
• 
• Asmaka:
• South most mahajanpada.
• Situated near the Godavari and its capital was Podana/Potli.
• An ancient town called Pratiasthana was the capital of a Janpad named Mulag which was near asmaka.
• Anga:
• It includes the Munger and Bhagalpur regions of Bihar.
• It was near the Champa river.
• Its capital was also named Champa.
• Avanti:
• Situated in central India.
• It had 2 important cities- Mahismati and Ujjani.
• It was ruled by Pradiyot Dynasty.
• Cedi:
• It is in the Bundelkhand region.
• Its capital was Sothivottinagar.
• Gandhara:
• It included modern Peshawar and Rawalpindi in Pakistan.
• Its capital was Taxila(which became a great centre of learning).
• It was conquered by the Persian king Darius in the 6th century BC.
• Kamboj:
• It includes the Hazara region of Pakistan and the Kafiristan region of Afghanistan.
• Kashi:
• It was bound by Varun and Assi rivers.
• Its capital was Varanasi.
• Kosala:
• It was divided by the Saryu river into 2 parts,
• Its capital was Sharvasti while Ayodhya and Saket were important cities.
• Kuru:
• It was ruled by the Yuddisthilla family from the clan Yudhishthira belongs to.
• Its capital was Indraprastha.
• Magadha:
• It included the region of Patna and Gaya of Bihar.
• It later emerged as the most powerful Mahajanpada.
• Malla:
• It has 2 power centres Kushinagar(Buddha passed away here) and Pava.
• Matsya:
• Located near Jaipur in Rajasthan.
• The territory included Alwar and Bharatpur also
• Capital was Viratnagar.
• Panchal:
• It was divided into 2 parts by Ganga.
• It had two capital- Ahichhatra and Kampilya.
• Kanyakubja(Modern Kannuj) was also part of the kingdom.
• Shurasena:
• Its capital was Mathura.
• It maintained good relations with Avanti,
• Vajji:
• It was a confederacy of 8 clans.
• The most powerful clan was the Licchavi clan.
• The capital was Vishali.
• Licchavi clan was led by Chetak who was the bother of Trishala(Mother of Mahavir).
• The daughter of chetak was married to Bimbisara(ruler of Magadha).
• Vatsa:
• Its capital was Kusambhi.
• The ruler of Vatsa Udayana and the ruler of Avanti(Pradyota) had a rival relationship.
• Later Daughter of Pradyota was married to Udayana(the central plot of 3 romantic dramas- Swapnavasvadatta by Bhasa, Ratnavali, and Pryidarsikha by Harshvardhan).
• Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa, and Avanti were the most powerful Mahajanpadas.
• Magadha emerged as the most powerful because of the following reasons:
• It lies in the extensive fertile plains of Ganga.
• The availability of Iron from the Chotanapgur Plateau led to large-scale agriculture and tools and weapons.
• Elephants were domesticated and included in the army.
• The early capital of Magadha had a strategic location surrounded by hills.
• Similarly, the later capital Patliputra was a water fort that is surrounded by rivers.
• Rulers were ambitious, pragmatic, and flexible in their outlook.
• Kirats and Madghas were seen as lower by others as recently vedisized and showed more zeal for the expansion of their kingdom.
• The political setup can be divided into 2 categories:
• Monarchy(king as an absolute authority)
• Oligarchy/Jansagha( rule by a group of people like Vajji).

Magadha-Harnayaka Dynasty (7:44 PM)

• Bimbisar (544-492 BC):
• He was a contemporary of Budhha and Mahavira.
• He maintained a standing army and started matrimonial alliances to strengthen the position of his empire.
• He fought with the ruler of Avanti(Pradayot Mahasena) however sent his court physician Jeevak when Pradayot was ill.
• He was killed by his son Ajatshatru who became the next ruler.
• Ajatshatru (492-460 BC)
• He was a contemporary of Budhha and Mahavira.
• He convened the 1st Buddist council after the death of lord buddha.
• He is the presumed inventor of 2 weapons- Rathmushal and Mahashilakantaka(engine to throw big stones).
• His son Udaya sifted the capital from Rajgraha to Patliputra.

The topic of the next class: Magadha to continue.

Ancient India Class 04

Sisunaga Dynasty (5:13 PM)

• Sisunaga killed the last ruler of the Harnayaka dynasty(Nagdasak) and set up his dynasty in Magadha.
• He also destroyed the power of Avanti.
• His son Kalashoka is known for conducting the second Buddhist council at Vaishali.

Nanda Dynasty (344-321 BC) (5:19 PM)

• It was established by Mahapadma Nanda.
• Mahapadma Nanda took the title of Ekarat (sole sovereign).
• His son Danananda become the next ruler and was unpopular with his subject because of oppressive taxation.
• However such was the might of the Magadha empire, that army of alexander did not dare to attack Patliputra.

Foreign invasion of India (5:31 PM)

• Around the 5th century BC, there was a struggle between greeks and Persians for supremacy.
• In 516 BC, Persian ruler Darius attacked India and annexed the Gandhara region as a province of his empire.
• This led to more commerce and trade between India and Persia, and the introduction of Kharosthi script (written from right to left just like Arabic languages) in the Indian subcontinent.
• Successors of Darius like Xerxes employed Indians in his battle against the greeks.
• Greek invasion:
• Alexander from Macedonia destroyed the power of the Persian empire and marched toward India.
• There were 2 rulers in the northwest regions Ambhi and Porus.
• Ambhi submitted to the invader however Porus posed a great challenge to alexander.
• He was a ruler of the region between the Jhelum and Chenab rivers.
• The armies of Porus and alexander fought near the river Jhelum (Hydaspus river in greek accounts).
• Porus was defeated but he bravely inspired Alexander and Porus was reinstalled as Satrap's provincial governor.
• After this greek soldiers were tired and went back without attacking Patliputra.
• Alexander died in 323 BC and his invasion is the first direct contact between Indians and Europeans.
• This invasion led to an increase in interest among greek historians and geographers who wrote about India from primary and secondary sources.
• New trade routes were opened, and greek architecture and sculpture influenced the Indian art form.
• However, later the greek territories were lost to the Mauryans.

Mauryan empire (324/321-187 BC) (5:51 PM)

• Sources for Mauryans:
• Arthashastra:
• It is attributed to Vishnugupta (personal name) also knowns as Kautilya (Gotra) and Chanakya (Son of Chanak).
• It consists of 15 books and is called Adhikarans.
• The 1st five deal with the internal administration of the state called Tantra.
• The next eight deal with inter-state relations called Avapa and reset with miscellaneous topics.
• Thus it is a theoretical work on statecraft and not a description of any particular empire.
• It does not contain any information about Mauryas, Chandragupta, or Patliputra.
• Artha (Material well-being) is considered superior to Dharam (spiritual well-being) and Kam (sensual well-being).
• Indica by Megasthenes:
• Megasthenes was an ambassador of Seleucus nicator.
• Seleucus was one of the commanders of Alexender.
• Megasthenes remained in the court of Chandragupta Maurya and also visited many regions of India.
• His original work Indica is significantly lost, however many other Greek writers like Strabo, Arrian, and Pliny used Indica to write about India.
• Chandragupta is mentioned as Sandrocottus, Bindusara is mentioned as Amitrochates, and Patliputra is mentioned as Palimbothra.
• Ashokan inspection:
• There are 14 major rock edicts, 7 pillar edicts, and also minor rock edicts.
• It was mainly written in Brahmini script in the Prakrit language.
• However, in some places, Kharosthi script, Greek, and Aramaic scripts have also been used.
• James Prinsep was the 1st to decipher Brahmani's script.
• In many of the inscriptions, Asoka is known as Devanampriya and Priyadashi.
• The name Ashoka is the same as Devnampriya and Piyadasi were deciphered from 2 Buddhist texts of Sri Lanka Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa.
• Apart from these, there are many other sources:
• Mudrarakshasa by Vishakhadatta (written during Gupta's time).
• The Buddhist text Ashokvadan.
• Parishisht Parvan by Hemachandra (Chandragupta's connection with Jainism)
• Sangam poet Mamulanar describes Chandragupta's southward expedition in his poem Akanannuru.

Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 BC) (6:50 PM)

•  He rose to the throne with the help of Chanakya.
• There are differing accounts regarding his origin.
• The most accepted theory is that he belonged to a ruling clan Pipphalivana in Uttar Pradesh.
• He defeated Dhana Nanda and later defeated Seleucus nicator around 301 BC.
• A treaty was signed under the terms many of the northwest regions become Mauryan territory.
• Seleucus' daughter Helen was married to Chandragupta and Seleucus received 500 elephants.
• Chandragupta Maurya converted to Jainism under Bhadrabahu and moved to Shravanabelagola in the later part of his life, where he died practising Sallekhana.

Bindusara (Amitraghata) (297-273 BC) (7:00 PM)

• He inherited a large territory covering almost the whole of India except the southernmost regions, Kalinga, and northeast.
• He adopted Ajivika.
• According to Pliny Bindusar maintained interstate relations with greek kings such as Antiochus(King of Syria), and Ptolemy-II(king of Egypt).
• Bindusara requested Antiochus to buy and sell him sweet wine, dried figs, and a sophist.
• Antiochus replied that greek laws don't permit sophists to be bought.
• Bindusara wanted his son Susima to succeed him but many of his officials supported Ashoka.

Ashoka (268-232 BC) (7.11 PM)

• He is considered one of the greatest kings of India.
• In the war of succession that followed Bindusara's death, Ashoka emerged victorious, aided by his father's ministers.
• Minister named Radhagupta seems to have played an important role.
• Ashoka was said to be a bad-tempered, ruthless, and cruel king who followed the path of conquest.
• In 9th year of his reign, he waged war with Kalinga.
• Hathigumpha inscription mentions that Kalinga was part of Magadha during the Nanda dynasty and later it declared independence.
• Ashoka's Kalinga war may have been punitive.
• However, the horrors of the war disturbed him and he perhaps is the only example in the world of a king who renounced war after winning one.
• He changed his policy from Bherighosha(physical conquest) to Dhammaghosha(cultural conquest).
• Ashoka's Dhamma is a moral code of conduct to spread the message of peaceful coexistence amongst various sects and religious practices at that time.
• The content of the dhamma was inscribed by Ashoka on rocks and pillars.
• Special officers called Dhamma Mahamantras were appointed to spread this message.
• Recently a stone portrait of Ashoka was discovered in Kanganhalli with Ranyo Ashoka written on it.
• After the death of Ashoka, the might of the Mauryan empire declined which may have led to the emergence of many regional kingdoms.
• The last Mauryan king Brihadratha was assassinated by his own general Pushyamitra sunga in about 187 BC.

Aspects of Mauryan society (7:35 PM)

• Megasthenes divided Indian people into 7 strata but this was his invention.
• 4 fold varna system was an integral part of society.
• Arthashastra talks about Dasa and Dasi, which can be associated with slavery in India.
• However, Megasthenes lauded Indian society for not having any slaves.
• Kautilya lays out various rules for slaves, he talks about Ahitakas who were placed to creditors when contracting a debt.
• Arthasastra states if a Dasi bore her master a son then she was released from enslavement and the child was considered the father's legitimate heir.
• Untouchability was prevalent for example Chandals and Shavapaka were included in the category called Antavasyin.
• Mauryan administration:
• Arthasasthra is the 1st Indian text to define a state.
• It envisages 7 interrelated and interlocked elements of the state known as Saptangrajya:
• Svamin- King.
• Amatya- ministers.
• Kosha- treasury.
• Janpada- territory.
• Durg- Fortified capital.
• Danda- Justice.
• Mitra- Ally.
• Svamin:
• King is the promulgator of social order an absolute authority who took final decisions regarding law and order, reviewed war, etc.
• King had to exercise great vigilance to safeguard his life and position.
• Various types of spies collected information for him such as stationary spies called Sanstha and those wandering from one place to another called Sanchar.
• King also maintained special reporters called Pativedaka and Polisni to inform him of public opinion.
• King maintained a female bodyguard for protection.
• He had moral obligations for the welfare of his people.

The topic for the next class: Mauryan administration to continue.

Ancient India Class 05

Doubts related to past class (5:07 PM)

Saptanga Rajya (continued) (5:17 PM)

• Amatyas:
• It includes all high officials such as Mantrin (ministers), Purohit (Priest), Senapati(commander-in-chief), and Yuvraj (Prince).
• some other important officials were called Mahamattas and Adhyaksha is known for important administrative and judicial functions.
• The chief collector of revenue was called Samharti.
• the chief treasurer was called Samnidhatri.
• Arthashastra also mentions officers at the district level known as Pradeshika, Rajuka, and Yukta.
• Janpads:
• Apart from Magadha, the empire was divided into at least 4 provinces.
• The southern province with its capital Suvarngiri.
• A western province with its capital Ujjayini.
• A northern province with its capital Taxila.
• An eastern province with its capital Tosali.
• The village administration was very efficient with many headquarters, for example:
• At the level of 800 villages, HQ was called Sthaniya
• At the level of 400 villages, HQ was called Donamukha.
• at the level of 200 villages, HQ was called Karvatika.
• At the level of 10 villages, HQ was called Samgrahana.
• The village headmen were called Gramika and village elders known as Gramvridhas also played a role in the administration.
• At Patliputra the municipal administration was quite efficient, the entire administration was conducted by 6 committees having 5 members in each of these committees.
• These committees were for industry, foreigners, birth and death registration, trade commerce and market regulation, manufactured articles, and tax collection.
• Durga (fortified capital):
• There were 4 divisions of the army as per Arthashastra:
• Infantry (headed by Patydhaksha).
• Cavalry (headed by Ashvadhyaksha).
• Chariots (headed by Rathadhyaksha).
• Elephants (headed by Hastadhyaksha).
• Megasthenes mentions 6 branches of the army and including the navy and a separate department for transportation and supervision of equipment.
• In addition, there is mention of periodic levies of troops such as  Maula(hereditary warriors), Bhartiakas(mercenaries) forest, and tribe soldiers.
• Kosha(treasury):
• Land revenue was the major source of income.
• Peasants had to pay 1/6th of their Produce known as Bhaga as well as an extra tax known as Bali as tribute.
• Arthashastra recognizes both state and privately-owned land.
• The state-owned land was taken care officers known as Sitadhyaksha.
• The owner of the land was called Ksehtrika and the tenant was called Upavasa.
• Many other taxes such as Pindkara (a cess on a group of villages), Hiranya (only paid in cash), Kara (levied on fruits and vegetables), and Pranaya (emergency tax) are mentioned.
• Apart from agriculture textile manufacturing, mining and metallurgy, and trading were other important activities.
• The reproduction of Iron was monopolized by Mauryans under Lohadhyaksha.
• Arthashastra mentions the concept of Sunyanivesh which is establishing settlements in unoccupied lands.
• Mauryans used silver coins and copper coins, and the officer in charge of coinage was Rupadarshaka.
• Danda (Justice):
• Kautilya refers to 2 types of courts- Dharmasthiya (which may have dealt with civil matters) and Kantakshodhanas (which may have dealt with civil matters).
• Judges were called Dharmastha, however, the Ashokan inscription mentions that even Mahamattas were given judicial function.
• Pradeshtris was responsible for the separation of criminals.
• The nature of punishment depended on the severity of the crime as well as the varna of the offender.
• Severe punishments such as amputation and decapitation were also practised.
• Mitra (Ally):
• Arthashastra discusses interstate policies and lists 6 policies knowns as shad Gunya:
• The policy of Sandhi (If one is weaker than the enemy)
• The policy of Vigraha (if one is stronger than the enemy).
• The policy of Asana (If one is equal to the enemy).
• The policy of Yana (if one is much stronger than the enemy).
• The Policy of Samshraya (if one is very weak).
• The policy of Dvaidbhava (a dual policy which includes sandhi with one and Vigraha with another).
• Arthashastra is written from the perspective of Vijigishu (to be conqueror).
• It mentions 3 types of conquer:
• Asurvijayana- demonic victory where the conqueror seizes land, and riches and kills the family of the enemy.
• Lobhavijayana-  conquest is motivated by greed for land and riches.
• Dharmavijayana- Righteous conqueror who is satisfied with the submission of the enemy.
• Many diplomatic positions are also mentioned such as Nisrihartha Dutt, Parimitartha Dutt, and Sasnhara Dutt.

Ashokan inscription (6:37 PM)

• Ashoka was an ardent follower of buddha's teaching.
• He organized the 3rd Buddist council at Patliputra.
• He is credited with the redistribution of the relics of Buddha and enshrining them in every important town in stupas.
• Ashoka's dhamma was very much inspired by Buddhist teaching.
• Ideas of Dhamma were inscribed on rocks and pillars and we find them in a different part of the Indian subcontinent.
• There are 14 major rock edicts:
• Rock edict 1:
• It prohibits the animal slaughter
• 2 peacocks and 1 deer were killed in the Mauryan kitchen, and Ashoka wished to discontinue this practice.
• Rock edict 2:
• It talks about care for man and animals.
• It also mentions Chola, Chera, Pandya, and Satya Putras from the southernmost region.
• Rock edict 3:
• Generosity to brahmins.
• It also mentions that Yuktas, Pradeshikas, and Rajukas shall go to all areas of the kingdom every 5 years and spread the Dhamma policy of Ashoka.
• Rock edict 4:
• It mentions Dhammagosha over Bherighosa.
• Rock edict 5:
• Concerns about slaves.
• It also mentions Ashoka saying every human is my child.
• This is an example of paternal disposition.
• A special cadre of Mahamattas was appointed to spread Dhamma.
• Rock edict 6:
• It mentioned the king's desire to be informed about the condition of people and talks about welfare measures
• Rock edict 7:
• It requests tolerance for all religions.
• Rock edict 8:
• It describes Ashoka's dhamma yatra Bodhagaya and Bodhitree.
• Rock edict 9:
• It condemns popular ceremonies and stresses ceremonies of Dhamma.
• Rock edict 10:
• It condemns the desire for fame and glory.
• Rock edict 11:
• It further elaborates on dharma.
• It talks about respect for elders and concern for slaves and servants.
• Rock edict 12:
• It directs and determined requests for tolerance among different religious sects.
• It mentions a special cadre of Mahamattas knowns as Ithjika Mahamatta(in charge of women's welfare)
• Rock edict 13:
• It is the largest inscription.
• It talks about Ashoka's victory over Kalinga and mentions the high number of casualties in the war.
• It further emphasizes Dhamma to be for most victory.
• It mentions Dhammaghosha over many kingdoms such as greek rulers, Ptolemy-III of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, King of Macedonia as well as southern kingdoms of Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
• Rock edict 14:
• It describes the engraving of inscriptions in different parts of the country.
• Ashoka uses his name at only 4 places in minor rock edicts- Muski(Karnataka), Udegolam(Karnataka), Gujjara(MP), and Nittur(Karnataka).

The decline of the Mauryan empire (7:28 PM)

• In the absence of sources, we have to save the general reasons for the decline, that is:
• Military might decline.
• Administrative infrastructure weakened.
• Many may have not liked the ideological orientation of rulers.
• In 187 BC Brihadratha was killed by brahmin commander Pushyamitra shunga.

Shunga Dynasty (7:37 PM)

• Pushyamitra shunga (187-75 BC):
• He founded the Shunga dynasty.
• Magadha empire was now limited to northern territories.
• Patliputa was attacked by 2 greek kings- Menander and Demetrius and, Pushyamitra successfully defended himself.
• He also defended Patliputra from Kalinga king Kharavela from the Chedi dynasty.
• During his reign, the Sanchi stupa was renovated.
• However, a Buddhist text mentions the hostility of Pushyamitra towards Buddhism.
• Pushyamitra patronaged Sanskrit grammarian Patanjali who is known for his work Mahabhashya.
• His son Agnimitra became the next ruler.
• Agnimitra is the hero of a play written by Kalidas Malvikagnimitra.
• the last ruler of the Shunga Dynasty was Devabhuti who was killed by  Vasudeva Kanva and established the Kanva dynasty.
• But this dynasty did not last long and the last Kanva ruler was defeated by the Satvanaha king.

The topic of the next class: Satvahanas.

Ancient India Class 06

PYQs discussion (5:09 PM).

Pottery culture of India (5:39 PM)

• Pottery plays an important role in studying culture and in constructing the past.
• It reflects the social economic and environmental conditions of culture.
• Ochre colour pottery:
• It signifies bronze age culture in the Indo-Gangetic plain region and artefacts of this culture show similarities with late Harappan culture and early Vedic culture.
• Black and Red Ware pottery:
• It is associated with the neolithic phase, the Harrapan age, the iron age as well as the megalithic age.
• Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
• This represents the iron age culture of the western Gangetic plain.
• It is associated with the village and early town settlements, the domestication of houses, and the advent of iron metallurgy.
• Northern black polish Ware (NBPW)
• It represents the urban iron age with the emergency of Mahajanpadas and the rise of the Magadha empire.

Foreign invasions (5:52 PM)

• Sources for foreign invasion:
• Coinage.
• Inscriptions.
• Some Buddhist texts (especially those talk about Kanishka).
• Archaeology.
• Chien Han shu- it is a Chinese text that provides information regarding the movement and migrations of people in central Asia.
• Indo-Greek Kingdom:
• Around 200 BC, Indo-greek kingdoms were settled in the northwest region of the Indian subcontinent.
• In Indian text, the term Yavana signifies people of greek origin, however, later this term signified all outsiders.
• The 1st Indo-greek king can be an Apollodotus-I because he ruled from Punjab and Gandhara region.
• The most famous rulers are Demetrius and Menander.
• Menander is mentioned as Milinda and his conversation with a Buddhist sage Nagsena is recorded in a very famous work Milindapanho.
• At the end of this conversation, Milinda converts to Buddhism and becomes a great patron of it.
• A greek king Antalciad sends his ambassador to Shunga King Bhagabhadra.
• His ambassador Heliodorus erected a pillar called Garuda Dhwaja in Vidisha(MP) in the honor of god Krishna.
• Heliodorus calls himself Bhagwat in this inscription.
• Significance of greek rule:
• They issued gold coins for the 1st time.
• Many coins had the names of kings inscribed on them.
• Coins with both greek legends and images of Indian deities have been found.
• Greek influence is most seen in sculpture, especially in the Gandhara school of art.
• Shakas (Indo-Scythians):
• They were a group of nomadic pastoral tribes that moved toward India in the 2nd century BC.
• Indo-Scythians signify Shakas who came toward India, replaced indo-greeks, and had a larger kingdom.
• Some of the earliest known rulers are Maues, Azas-I, and Chastana. 
• Chastana ruled from Ujjain.
• The starting of Saka Samvat 78 AD marks the accession of Kusan ruler Kanishka, however, some history opines that it is the accession of Chastana.
• A branch of Shaka ruled from Gujrat who are knowns as western Kshatarap.
• The most important ruler from western Kshatrap is Rudradaman-I(130-150 AD).
• Rudradaman-I(130-150 AD):
• He was the grandson of Chastana and during his reign, western Kshatarap reached its zenith.
• He took up the title of Mahakshatarap and defeated the Satavahana rulers.
• He conducted the repair work of Sudarshan lake in the Kathiawar region in Gujarat.
• This lake was constructed by Pushyagupta a governor of Chandragupta Maurya.
• This information is derived from the Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman.
• He also maintained marital relations with Satavahana, for example, his daughter was married to Vashishtiputra Satakarni a Satavahana king.
• A ruler from Ujjain is mentioned in the ancient text who defeated Shakas from his regions, he called himself Vikramaditya and became a coveted title.
• Vikram Samvat marks the defeat of the Shaka ruler which start in 57 BC.
• Shakas in the northwest declined because of attacks from Parthians and Kushans.
• In Gujrat despite hostilities with Satavahanas, they maintained their rule, only during the reign of Chandragupta-II the rule of western Kshatrapas came to an end.
• Parthians:
• Parthians originated from Persia, the most famous Parthian king was Gondophares, also known as Guduvhara.
• During his reign, Saint Thomas visited India for the propagation of Christianity.
• There is a theory that Vikram Samvat makes the accession of Azes-I in 57 BC a Parthian king.

Kushans (7:11 PM)

• Kushans were one of the branches of the Yuezhi Tribe which roamed around the provinces of china to central Asia.
• They defeated the Parthians and Shakas and set up their independent kingdom.
• The Foundation of the empire was laid by Kujula Kadphises.
• Kanishka:
• Kanishka is considered the greater Kushana ruler who was the son of Vima Kadphises.
• His kingdom included the entire North-west frontier of India including Punjab, the region around the Indus river as well as Afghanistan, parts of central Asia, parts of china, and a significant part of the Ganga doab region.
• His main capital was Purushpura(modern Peshawar), and Mathura was his second capital.
• He conveyed the 4th Buddhist council in Kashmir.
• The scholar in his court included Ashvagosh, Vasumitra, Charak, Pansva, and Nagarjuna.
• Kanishka became a great patron of Mahayana Buddhism as well as a Patron of art and architecture.
• Significance of the Kushana empire:
• Sanskrit literature flourished in this period, for example, Ashvagosh is often considered the 1st Sanskrit dramatist, known for his famous work Buddha Charitra.
• Both Gandhara and Mathura schools flourished, while Mathura is indigenous Gandhara school has greek and roman influences
• Kushans were an integral part of the ancient silk route which connected China to Europe, because of customs duties the empire became very prosperous.
• They issued gold coins on large scale.
• The quality of the gold was unmatched.
• Buddhism spread to many parts of the world.
• Modern clothes such as overcoats and sherwanis have Kushana origin.
• Some historians argue that the Kushana period was a perfect forerunner of the Gupta period which is considered the golden age of India.
• Later rulers such as Vashishka, Huvishka, and Vasudev could not contain the empire.
• By the early 3rd century, the empire disintegrated.

Satavahana (7:45 PM)

• The main sources are:
• Naneghat cave in Pune.
• Nasik caves.
• Puranas.
• Numismatics.
• They are identified with the Andhara of Puranas even though the term Satavahana is not mentioned anywhere in Puranas and the term Andhra is not mentioned in any of the inscriptions.
• The Satavahana term has a Prakrit origin which signifies the Sun god's chariot.
• The earliest known ruler is Simuka.
• The 3rd king of the dynasty was Satkarni-I who took the title of lord of Dakshinpath.
• He fought with Chedi king Kharavela.
• Satvahanas were involved in a prolonged conflict with Shakas mainly for premium ports such as Bhigukachcha, Kalyan, and Suparka.
• The greatest ruler of this dynasty was Gautamiputra Satkarni.
• He defeated a Shaka ruler Nahapana and restruck silver coins in his name which were issued by Nahapana.
• He defeated the Shakas, Pallavas, and Yavanas.
• He took the title of Maharaja and was described as Ekbrahaman and Kshetiya Dapa Manamada.

The topic for the next class: Satavahana (to continue).

Ancient India Class 07

Last class revision (5:08 PM)

Significance of Satavahana (5:14 PM)

• Society - Satavahana rulers claimed themself to be Brahmins and It was their duty to uphold 4 fold varna system.
• Many rulers were known by their mother's name, for example, Gautamiputra Satakarni or his som Vashishtiputra Pulumayi.
• Even though the succession of the kingdom went to sons.
• Economy - Agriculture such as rice, and cotton crops was very prominent along with mining.
• Many traders and artisans called themself Gandhikas even though the term initially meant perfume makers.
• Satavahana issued copper and silver coins.
• Religion and language - They were worshippers of Lord Siva and Vishnu.
• They started the practice of giving tax-free lands to brahmins as well as Buddhist monks.
• Prakrit was the official language written in Brahmi script.
• The use of Sanskrit was very rare.
• Administration - Kingdom was divided into districts called Ahara.
• The important official was knowns as Amatyas and Mahamatras.
• The village headmen were called Gaulmika who sometimes also headed a small military regiment.
• Satavahanas also contributed to architecture such as rock-cut architecture, monasteries, chaitya, and viharas in the Deccan region.
• The empire declined by the early 3rd century, and many kingdoms emerged from it, the most important being Vakataka rulers.
• A school of sculpture known as the Amaravati school of art emerged during the Satavahana period.
• Satavahanas had 2 capitals Amaravati and Pratishthana.

Megalithic age (1200-400 BC) (5:41 PM)

• The neolithic phase of south India was succeeded by the megalithic phase.
• They are not known from their settlement, but from the burial practices which they adopted.
• The graves are called megaliths because they were encircled by big stone pieces and in most cases located outside the settlement area.
• The 1st use of iron objects in south India is from this period.
• Black and Redware pottery has been found buried in these megaliths.
• The number of agricultural tools is less compared to tools for hunting and fighting.
• This does signify that people did not practice advanced agriculture.
• Evidence of Rice, Ragi, and cultivation has been found.
• Megaliths are mainly concentrated in eastern Andrapradesh and Tamil Nadu, for example, Paiyampalli and Kodumanal.
• The Cholas, Cheras, and Pandya mentioned in Ashokan inscriptions may have belonged to the last phase of the megalithic age.

Sangam age (300BC-300AD) (5:54 PM)

• Sangam literature:
• According to Tamil legends, there were 3 assemblies of poets patronized by the Pandya king of Madurai they were popularly called Muchchangam/Sangam.
• The work of 1st Sangam has not survived.
• The work of the Second Sangam has also not survived except for Tolkappiyam a book on Tamil grammar.
• The work of 3rds Sangam and post-Sangam literature have survived and are the major sources of the history of south India in ancient times.
• Sangam literature can be divided into 2 groups.
• The narrative text is called  Melkanakku which are work of heroic poetry and the didactic text Kilkanakku.
• Two of the greatest work of Tamil literature Silappadikaram and Manimekalai are post-Sangam works and examples of Didactic text.
• Silappadikaram:
• Silappadikaram deals with the love story of rich merchant Kovalan, a courtesan Madhavi and Kovalan's wife Kanagi.
• It is written by Ilango Adigal.
• Manimekalai:
• It is an Anti-love story of the daughter of Madhavi and Kavalan wants to join the Buddhist sangha as a nun.
• It was written by Chithalia Chathanar.
• Other sources of Sangam age:
• Periplus of Erythrean sea.
• Natural history by Pliny.
• Numismatics.
• Epigraphy.

Cholas, Cheras and Pandyas (6:21 PM)

• They are collectively knowns as Muvender.
• Cholas:
• Their capital was Uraiyur.
• Their premium port was Puhar (Kaveripattnam).
• Their royal emblem was a tiger.
• One of the early kings was Elara.
• He is mentioned to have conquered Sri-lanka.
• The greatest Chola king from this age is considered to be Karaikal.
• Karaikal:
• He founded Puhar which became a great centre of trade and commerce.
• He constructed an embankment of about 150 km along the river Kaveri.
• He defeated an alliance of Pandya and Cheras in the battle of Venni.
• In Sangam literature, it is mentioned, that 11 rulers lost their drums in this battle.
• Cheras:
• Chera kingdom mainly includes modern Kerala.
• Their capital was Vanji.
• Their port was Muchiri (Muziris).
• Their royal emblem was a bow.
• The earliest known Chera king is Udiyanjeral.
• One of the most prominent kings was Nendunjeral Adan.
• He took the title of Adhiraja.
• His son Senguttuvan is considered a great Chera king from ancient times.
• Sangam's text describes his military victory against the neighbouring kingdom.
• It is also said that he invaded the north and crossed the river Ganga.
• Pandyas:
• Pandyan territory included the southernmost region.
• Their capital was Madhuri
• Their premium port was Korkai.
• Their royal emblem was the fish.
• Pandyas are 1st mentioned by Megasthenes, he says that the kingdom was ruled by women.
• One of the characters of Silappadikam is Nendunjeliyan-I, as per the text he died of remorse because of the death of Kovalan who was innocent.
• Nendunjeliyan-II is considered an important ruler who defeated the Cholas and Cheras.
• In some inscriptions, it is mentioned, that his subordinates patronaged Jainism.

The economy in Sangam age (7:04 PM)

• A 5 fold division is mentioned in Tolkapiyam, this division was called Tinai and included:
• Kurinji-land of hilly tracks used for hunting and gathering.
• Mullai- pastoral land used for animal husbandry.
• Palai-infertile land.
• Marudam- agricultural.
• Neital- used for fishing and salt making.
• Agriculture was the main occupation.
• The cultivation of rice, cotton, sugarcane, pepper, turmeric, cardamom, and cinnamon was prevalent.
• Tanks and dams were used for irrigation as the region is devoid of perennial rivers.
• Trade both inland and foreign was well established.
• Many trade-related terms such as Vanikkam, Chattan, and Nigama are mentioned.
• Salt merchants were called Ummnan.
• The mobile merchants were called Chattu.
• The market palaces were called Avanam
• A flourishing trade with Romans was the most important feature of the Sangam economy.
• There was a surplus trade with main export items such as species, perfumes, fine textiles, precious stones, and black pepper(called Yavan Priya).
• The main items that were imported were lead, corals, and slave girls.
• Around 1 century AD, the discovery of monsoon wind by the greek sailor Hippatus further intensified the trade.
• Apart from land revenue and custom duty, tributes paid by the local chief were the major sources of income for the state.
• A major tribute was a war booty called Arai.

Society and religion (7:19 PM)

• The concept of the varna system was known in the Sangam age, however, it was not practised similarly as it was in north India.
• Social stratification was based on Kuti.
• There was no restriction on interdining in Kuti groups.
• The society was very much unequal, the ruling class was called Arasar and the rich peasants were called Vellalas.
• The lowest class who did the manual work on the farm was called Kadaisiyar.
• The class of warriors was an important class of society.
• Captains of the army were given the title of Enadi.
• Memorial stones were enacted in the honor of those who died fighting, they were called Nadukul or Virukkal.
• Most of the Sangam poets were male however few of them were women.
• Poets belonged to all classes and kings and poets were dependent on each other.
• There is mention of Sati being practised in Tamil society.
• It was called Tippayadal however it was not obligatory.
• There were many local deities for example the worship of the god Murugan (also called Subramaniya).
• In Sangam, brahmins appeared in Tamil land, and many brahmins became great poets and were rewarded by the kings.
• Kings also patronaged Buddhism and Jainism.

Gupta empire (7:50 PM)

• Sources:
• Purans.
• Work of Kalidas.

The topic for the next class: the Gupta empire.

Ancient India Class 08

Gupta empire (5:09 PM)

• Sources for the Guptas: Puranas.
• Work of Kalidas:
• Meghadutam.
• Raghuvansham.
• Kumarasambhavam.
• Abhigyanshankutalam.
• Other sources:
• Nitisara by kamandak.
• Devichandraguptam by Vishakhadatta.
• Mrichchhakatika by Sudraka.
• Panchatantra.
• Accounts of Chinese traveller Fa-Hien.
• Kamasutra by Vatsyayana.
• Epigraphy:
• Mehrauli Iron pillar by Chandragupta.
• Prayag Prashasti- It was composed by the court poet of Samudragupta, Harisena.
• Junagragh rack inscription by Skandgupta.
• Numismatics.
• Archaeology.
• Political developments:
• Guptas are believed to be feudatories of Kushans.
• They may have been vaishya.
• The Gupta period is referred to as the golden age of ancient India because of their contribution to literature, science and astronomy, medicine, art, and architecture and issuing of the largest number of gold coins in ancient India.
• The Dynasty was founded by Sri Gupta in around mid of 3rd century.
• His son Ghatotkach was the 2nd ruler, both these rulers adopted the title maharaja.
• Chandraputa-I (320-335 AD):
• He was son of Ghatotkach.
• He married a Lichchavi princess Kumaradevi to strengthen the position of the Guptas.
• He issued coins with pictures of both king and queen.
• He assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja and is generally considered the 1st ruler of the Gupta empire.
• Samudragupta (335-375AD):
• As per Prayag Prashasti, he followed a policy of war and conquest.
• He was a restless conqueror who defeated many kingdoms in different parts of the country such as rulers of Ganga-Yamuna doab, central India, Deccan, and south, Shakas, and Kushans in western India.
• However, his direct control included northern territories.
• The ruler of Sri Lanka Meghavarman sent to ask permission to build a Buddhist temple at Bodhgaya, which was accepted.
• After conquering territories, he performed the Ashwamedha sacrifice and called himself the restorer of Ashwamedha in his coins.
• He is often called the Napolean of India due to his military conquest.
• He is also called Kaviraj and is praised for his musical skills, some coins depict Samudragupta holding a Veena.
• He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism and also became a patron of Buddhism for example a Buddhist scholar Vasubandhu was patronized by him.
• Chandragputa-II/Vikarmaditya (376-413 AD)
• As per Devichandraguptam by Vishakhadatta, Ramgupta succeeded Samudra Gupta, he surrendered his wife to his enemy shakas, however, Chandragupta-II sneaked at the enemy champ, killed the Shaka king, and rescued the queen.
• During Chandragupta-II Gupta dynasty reached its zenith through conquest and marriage alliances.
• He married Naga princess Kuber Naga and had a daughter named Prabhavati Devi.
• Prabhavati was married to prince Rudrasena-II of the Vaktaka dynasty.
• This alliance was very useful as Shakas were uprooted from Gujrat and western Malwa by Chandragupta.
• After this victory, Ujjain became the next capital along with Patliputra.
• He adopted the title Vikramaditya and Singhvikram.
• During his reign, a Chinese traveller Fa-Hien visited India and wrote in detail about India and its people.
• Udhyagiri cave inscription calls him Digvijaya, conqueror of all directions.
• His court at Ujjain was adorned by Navaratanas and was the following:
• Kalidas.
• Amarasimha: His work Amarakosha is the vocabulary of Sanskrit work and is divided into 3 parts called Trikand.
• Varahamihira: He was an astronomer and astrologer, who composed Panchasiddhantika.
• His work Brihad-Samhita is considered a great work in the Sanskrit language and deals with many subjects.
• Brihad Jataka is also an important work of Varahamihira.
• Dhanvantani: He is considered one of the greatest names in Ayurveda.
• Shanku: An architect who wrote Shilpasastra.
• Vararuchi: He authored Prakrit Prakash, a work on Prakrit grammar.
• Vetalabhatta: He was a magician and author of Mantra shastra.
• Ghatakarpara: He was an expert on sculpture and architecture.
• Kahapanaka: An astrologer who wrote Jothisya shastra.
• Kumargupta(415-455 AD):
• He was the son of Chandragupta-II and adopted the title of Shakraditya and Mahendraditya.
• He laid the foundation of Nalanda University, which became a great university in ancient India.
• At the end of his reign, Huns of central Asia, attacked from the northwest frontier, this attack was thwarted by prince Skandagupta, who became the next ruler.
• Skandagupta(455-467 AD):
• He adopted the title of Vikramaditya and repaired Sudarshan lake in Gujarat.
• After his death, his successor such as Purugupta, Kumargupta-II, and Buddhagupta, among others could not save the Gupta empire from disintegration.

Reasons for decline of Gupta empire (7:02 PM)

• Hun invasion:
• Hun chief Tormana by the 5th century occupied regions of Punjab, Rajasthan, Kashmir, and also parts of central India.
• Tormana's son Mihirkul has been portrayed as a tyrant in Buddhist work as well as Rajtarangi written by Kalhana.
• Mihirkul was defeated by an alliance of Yashodharman of Malwa, and Narsihma Gupta of the Gupta dynasty.
• Yasodharman declared his independence and was followed by many other feudatories.
• Rise of regional kingdoms: Many feudatories asserted their independence such as Yashodharman of Malwa, Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, and Vakataka rulers in Deccan among others.
• Economic decline: With losing of western India, which was important for trade and commerce, the economy was crippled.
• Later Gupta rulers did not issue gold coins and their territories were linked to regions around Pataliputra.
• With the decline of Guptas, the prominent regional kingdoms in India were Pushyabhutis of Thanesar, Makuhari of Kannauj, Maitrakas of Vallabhi, Pallavas of Kanchi, Chalukyas of lower Deccan.

Administration under the Gupta empire (7:23 PM)

• The empire was divided under the princes called Bhuktis under the charge of Uparika.
• Bhuktis were divided into  Vishayas under the charge of Vishaypati.
• Vishayas were divided into Vithis which comprised many villages.
• Many settlements below the district level were known by various names such as Patta, Bhumi, Pathak, and Petha.
• At the village level, Gramika and Gramadhyaksha played important roles in the administration.
• Vishayapti was assisted in administration by prominent members of the town Nagarsreshthin (chief merchant, banker), Sarthvaha (chief Karwan trader), Prathamkulika(chief artisan), Prathamkayastha (chief revenue collector).
• Important officials at the central level were called Kumaramatya.
• Sandhivigraha was the minister of foreign affairs.
• Gupta kings focused more on cavalry than horse chariots.
• Villagers were subjected to forced labour called Vishti(a term also mentioned in Arthashastra, however during the Gupta period became popular and was considered a type of tax).
• Shrenis (Guilds):
• It means an association of traders, merchants, and artisans.
• This system of Guilds began during the Mahajanpada period and continued through the Mauryan period.
• Generally, a separate Shreni existed for a particular group of persons engaged in the same vocation.
• They were often governed by their laws and enjoyed certain immunities.
• They also acted as banks and provided loans to people.
• Elements of feudalism found in the Gupta administration:
• A major part of the empire was held by the feudatory chiefs.
• These chiefs offered homage and paid tribute to the empire.
• Religious functionaries were granted land free of tax.
• High officials were paid in cash but some of them were also given land grants.

Economy during Gupta age (7:49 PM)

• They issued the largest number of gold coins which were called Dinaras. 
• Silver coins were also issued, but the number of copper coins was less.
• There was a decline in long-distance trade, however inland trade was prosperous.
• The land was divided into many categories such as Kshetra(cultivable land), Khila(wasteland), Aprahata(forest land), Vasti(habitable land), and Gapta-Saraha(pastoral land).
• Land grants were known as Agrahara(given to brahmins, tax-free heredity land) and the village on such land was called Brahmadeya.
• Devagrahara was given to Brahmins as well as merchants for the repair and maintenance of temples.
• Various types of land unit measurement emerged such as Angul, Hasta, and Dhanu were smaller units of measurement, while Ardhavapa, Dronavapa, and Kulavapa were larger units of measurement.

The topic for the next class: The Gupta empire(to continue).

Ancient India Class 09

Gupta empire continued (5:10 PM)

• Taxation during the Gupta empire:
• There are many types of taxes such as:
• Bhag- 1/6th of the produce.
• Bhog- supply of fruits and vegetables.
• Bali- voluntary offerings.
• Udianga-  for maintenance of police stations.
• Uparika- cess or extra tax.
• Hiranya- King's share on certain types of crops or tax on gold.
• Vatabhuta- a tax to get rid of spirits.
• Shulka- custom duty.
• Klipta, Upklipta- Tax on sale and purchase of land.
• Guptas invested in agriculture like Khare(irrigation channels) and Badhaya(dams for controlling floods).
• There were two types of traders- Sresti(settled traders) and Sathavaha(Karwan traders)
• Many ports were used for trading, including Kalyana port, Chaul, Kadura, Ghantasala, Salapatna, and Nalapatna.

Society under Guptas (5:28 PM)

• In society proliferation of caste occurred.
• This may have occurred on account of the integration of new tribes as well as foreigners into the society.
• Warriors and tribal chiefs were given higher status while people of lower strata were given lower status.
• The position of sudra improved in this period, they were represented as farmers.
• The number of Chandals increased, and they often lived in deplorable conditions on the outskirts of cities.
• They dealt with the burning of dead bodies, the flesh trade, etc.
• Chandals were considered untouchable.
• While women of lower classes were free to earn their livelihood same did not happen to women of upper Varna.
• Women were allowed Streedhan(gifts received during marriage), however, they did not have right over ancestral property.
• The practice of Sati is found during the Gupta period at the same time some books allowed widow remarriage.
• The Practice of Niyoga which allowed procreating in case of the death of the husband during the Vedic period was no longer allowed.
• Religion:
• Hindu epics were given the final touches and Vaishnavism flourished during this period.
• Most of the text was written in Sanskrit using the Gupta-Brahmi script which later became Siddha/ Siddhamatrika script.
• Siddha-Matrika's script evolved into many scripts used today such as Devnagri.
• This period also witnessed the development of tantrism in both Hinduism and Buddhism.
• Vajrayana Buddhism has a lot of elements for tantrism.
• Gupta kings were tolerant of both Buddhism and Jainism.
• They patronaged Buddhist art, however overall the patronaged Buddhism declined.
• Idol worship in the temple became a common phenomenon.
• Along with Vishnu, worship of Brahma and Shiva became popular.
• The Gupta period had a long-lasting impact on science, astronomy, mathematics, art and architecture, literature as well as society and region.

Muryan empire Vs Gupta empire (6:08 PM)

• The Mauryan empire was vaster that the Gupta empire
• Mauryan rulers followed a more centralization as compared to the Guptas
• Mauryan bureaucracy was more elaborate than Guptas.
• The judicial system of Guptas was more developed with a clear demarcation of civil and criminal laws 
• The taxation system during muryan rulers was more stringent while the Guptas followed a liberal taxation system
• Guptas mainly promoted Vaishnavism while Mauryan favoured many religions
• Mauryan architects involved stupas, and pillars while the 1st standing temples developed during the Gupta period.
• The Gupta period witnessed the flourishing of science, literature, and astronomy compared to the Mauryan period.
• External trade flourished more during the Mauryan period compared to the Guptas.

The reign of Harshavardhan (6:34 PM)

• Sources:
• Harshacharitam was written by Banbhatta.
• XuanXang/Hiuen Tsang:
• Chinese scholar who came to India during Harsha's reign
• He wrote a book called Si Yu Ki.
• Madhuban copper plate.
• Aihole inscription a prashasti of Pulakeshin-II.
• Harshavardhan (606-647 AD):
• He was the son of king Prabhakar Vardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty.
•  Pushyabhuti ruled from Sthaneshwar.
• After the death of Prabhakar Vardhana his son, Rajyavardhan (Harsha's brother) became a ruler.
• Their sister Rajyashri was married to Grahvarman of Kannauj.
• Kannuaj was attacked by Devgupta of Malwa who was assisted by Shashank of Gauda, Grahvarman was killed and Rajyashri was kept as a prisoner.
• In the ongoing battle, Rajyavardhan also got killed and Harsha became the next ruler at the age of 16.
• Harsha defeated the Malwa king, freed her sister, and moved his capital to Kannauj.
• He united many small kingdoms under his command.
• After the death of Shashank, he also annexed Bihar and Bengal.
• There were 2 types of territory under his control, one directly under his control such as Bengal, Kalinga, Rajputana, Gujarat, Malwa, and feudatories such as Punjab, Kasmir, Kamrupa, Nepal, etc.
• He wanted to conquer southern India but was defeated by Chalukya king Pulakeshin-II in 619 AD at the banks of the Narmada river, thus Narmada became the defacto southern boundary of his kingdom.
• XuanXang in his account praised Harsha a lot.
• Harsha became a great patron of Buddhism and supported generously to Nalanda university.
• He was a great scholar and is considered with 3 important Sanskrit works- Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda.
• His reign marked the beginning of feudalism in India.
• He collected 1/4th of the produce as tax.
• His main officials were the following:
• Avanti- minister of foreign affairs
• Simhanand- Commander in chief
• Kuntala- chief cavalry officials
• Skhandgupta- chief of elephant forces.
• Drighdhvaj- Royal messenger.
• Banu- Keeper of record
• Sarvghata-Cheif of the intelligence department.
• Mahapratihara- chief of the palace guard.
• His empire disintegrated very soon after his death.
• His heirs were killed by his officials.

Pallavas (6th-9th century) (7:31 PM)

• Their origin is not clear in the 7th century AD 3 important kingdoms in south India were fighting for supremacy, Pallavas of Kanchipuram, Chalukyas of Badami, and Pandyas of Madhurai.
• These 3 kingdoms had come together to defeat Kalabhras who remained politically significant from the 5th-7th century.
• One of the earliest rulers was Shivaskandavarman, who may have ruled in the 4th century.
• Simhavarman and Mahendravarman expanded the pallavas territories.
• Shimavarman also ruled a part of Sri Lanka.
• His son Mahendravarman further extended his territory.
• He had a rivalry with Chalukyas and in a battle with Pulakeshin-II, he was killed.
• Son of Mahendravarman, Narshimavarman(630-680 AD) became the next ruler, he defeated Pulkesin-II and took control of Vatapi(Chalukayan capital), and assumed the title of Vatapi-Konda after this victory.
• Later rulers such as Mahendravarman II and Paramesvaravarman were not able to maintain their kingdoms.
• By late-8th and early 9th century, the kingdom declined and the last ruler Aparajitavarmanwas killed by Cholas.
• Signifnce of Pallavas rule:
• The Bhakti movement in Tamil Nadu started during this period with Alvas the worshippers of Vishnu and Nayanars the worshippers of Shiva.
• Pallavas became the great patron of architecture, the Dravidian type of architecture flourished during this period, for example, the Shore temple at Mahabalipuram is part of the UNSECO world heritage site. 
• Many types of architecture developed for example rock-cut architecture, free-standing temples, etc.
• Brahmins were patronaged by kings who recover tax-free land and villages which were called Agrahara land and Brahamadaya villages.
• They were worshipers of Lord Shiva and Vishu and tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Kanchipuram became a great centre of learning.
• Both Sanskrit and Tamil literature flourished in this period.

The topic for the next class: Palas and Imperial Cholas.

Ancient India Class 10

Last class revision (5:08 PM)

Chalukyas (5:34 PM)

• There are 3 branches of Chalukya- Chalukyas of Badami/Vatapi, Chalukyas of Vengi(Eastern Chalukyas), and Chalukyas of Kalyan/Western Chalukyas.
• All of these branches were related to each other.
• Badami Chalukya:
• The earliest known ruler of Badami Chalukyas was Jaysimha.
• The other rulers were Pulakeshin-I, Kritivarman, and Mangalesh.
• The greatest ruler of the dynasty was Pulakeshin-II(contemporary to Harshavardhan).
• Pulakeshin-II:
• Information about Pulakeshin-II mainly comes from the Aihole inscription written by the court poet of Pulakeshin-II Ravikriti.
• Chalukya's kingdom reached its zenith during his reign.
• He is most famous for stopping Harshvardhan on the banks of river Narmada.
• Later he defeated Pallava king Mahendravarman, however, he was defeated by Narasimhavarman.
• Son of Pulakeshin-II,  Vikramaditya-I attacked Kanchi and this led to the decline of the power of Pallavas.
• This victory was however shortlived, the last Chalukya ruler Kritivarman-II was defeated by Dantidurga(founder of the Rashtrakuta empire).
• Significance of Badami Chalukyas:
• Chalukya rulers patronized Hinduism but remained tolerant of Buddhism and Jainism.
• Along with Sanskrit, Kannada and Telugu literature also prospered.
• They were the great builders of temples, for example, the Vesara style of architecture which is a combination of Nagara and Dravida styles flourished during this period.
• The temples of Pattadakal are part of the UNESCO world heritage sites.

Tripartite struggle/ Kannauj Triangle (6:03 PM)

• A Series of wars occurred among 3 kingdoms where the city of Kannauj was popularly known as the Tripartite struggle/ Kannauj Triangle.
• These 3 kingdoms were Rashtrakutas, Palas, and Pratiharas.
• At the end of the struggle, Pratiharas emerged victorious, however, Pratihara's kingdom gradually declined.

MCQ discussion related to Previous classes (6:07 PM)

Rashtrakutas empire (8th-10th century) (7:06 PM)

• They claimed themself to be descendent of Satyaki.
• Their mother tongue was Kannada and initially, they were feudatories of Chalukyas.
• The empire was founded by Danditdurga in 735 AD.
• Krishna-I started the construction of the Kailash temple at Ellora.
• Some other important kings were Govind-I, Govind-II, Govind-III, and Druv.
• The greatest king of the dynasty was Amoghavarsha.
• Amoghavarsha(814-878 AD):
• He is often called Ashoka of the south because of his focus on peace and prosperity.
• He set up a new capital at Manyakheta.
• He converted to Jainism under a Jain monk Jinasena.
• An Arab merchant Suleiman called him one of the 4 greatest kings of the world along with the kings of Baghdad, China, and Constantinople.
• Significance of Rashtrakutas:
• They patronized both Kannada and Sanskrit languages.
• Amoghavarsha himself was a great poet who wrote Kavirajamarga in Kannada.
• The greatest poet of Kannada literature Pampa lived during this period.
• Pampa is most famous for his work Vikramarjuna Vijaya.
• In architecture, both Ellora and Elephanta cave architecture were constructed during this time.
• They also maintained trade relationships with Arab merchants.

Palas (8-10th century) (7:22 PM)

• There was anarchy in Bengal after the death of Harshavardhan.
• In 750 AD Gopal founded the Pala dynasty.
• This period is often called the golden age of Bengali literature.
• Some of the notable rulers were, Dharmapala, who founded Vikramshila university at Bhagalpur, Bihar.
• Devpala is considered one of the greatest kings who defeated Rastrakutas, he was a Buddhist who build many monasteries and temples in Magadha.
• The king of Java, Balputradev sent an ambassador to his court.
• The last powerful king was Rampala.
• Snadhyakar Nandin wrote Ramcharitra which is written in Shlesha and significances one statement with more than one meaning, this book tells the story of lord Ram and Pala king Rampala.
• Significance of the Pala Dynasty:
• They patronized Nalanda and Vikramshila university.
• They started miniature painting in India.
• They are considered the last patron of Buddhism in India.

Pratiharas (7:38 PM)

• The term Pratihara means doorkeeper.
• The ruler considered the epic hero Laxman as their hero.
• It was founded by Nagbhatta in about 730 AD.
• He was able to resist attacks from Arabs.
• Some notable rulers were Vatsaraj and Nagbhatta-II.
• Mihir Bhoja(836-885 AD) is considered the greater ruler of the dynasty.
• Initially, he was defeated by Rashtrakutas and Palas, but later he was very successful and emerged victorious in Kannauj.
• He was an ardent follower of Vaishnavism and took the title of Adivaraha.
• He was called king Baura by an Arab traveller Al-Masudi.
• By the 11th century the might of Pratihara declined and later because of attacks by Mahmud of Ghazni, the dynasty came to end.

The Ancient syllabus is over.