Modern Indian History Class 16

1857 Revolt 

• On 19 march 1857, Mangal Pandey at Barakhpur at Calcutta fired at British officers and his fellow sepoys refused to arrest him, and all hanged him.
• On the 10th of May Meerut sepoys mutiny and reached Delhi on the 11th of May and proclaimed BS Jazar as emperor of Hindustan.
• The revolt spread to other contentment in north-west provinces and Awadh and the civil population joined.
• British rule collapsed from 11th May till the spring of 1858.
• Delhi was recaptured by the British only by 20th September 1857.
• Reasons for sepoy mutiny:
• Racism:
• Discrimination in salaries and pension.
• The highest post an Indian sepoy could reach was Subadar which gave only 60-70 rupees a month.
• Racist slurs like Indians were referred to as pigs.
• Economic reasons:
• To compensate for high war expenditure, the salaries of sepoys decreased, and allowance for service outside their region ended in 1856.
• Socio-religious reasons:
• Initially, EIC recruited sepoys in line with Indian tradition that is upper castes were recruited and their caste and religious customs were respected.
• But as the empire expanded different communities joined the EIC army.
• Therefore difficult to respect the religious customs of the upper caste.
• British tried developing a uniform culture in the army as it would decrease loyalty to caste/religion and increase loyalty to the empire, to have better control over sepoys.
• Therefore EIC reduced caste privileges, like wearing religious symbols, food preferences, etc, and sepoys were forced to go abroad to Burma, Sindh, and Afghanistan, leading to caste loss.
• And those who refused were punished or dismissed.
• Also since the charter act of 1813, there was a focus on the spread of Christianity and Christian missionaries in barracks created the fear of conversion.
• The whole rural society has fear that their religion was under threat.
• Forced conversion and arrivals of missionaries.
• Socio-religious reform post-1801 escalated fears that the British wanted to destroy traditional customs like:
• Sati abolition.
• Hindu widow remarriage act.
• Lex-Loki act(caste disability removal act, removal of religious disabilities act), 1850 gave the right of inheritance to Hindu and Muslim converts to other regions.
• British began taxing mosques and temples.
• Rumours:
• Rumour of mixing cow and pig bone dust in flour.
• The cartridges of Enfield rifles replaced brown bass muskets having Greece made up of cow and pig fats.
• These bullets were to be bitten off before loading.
• Therefore sepoys feared that the British wanted to make them lesser Hindus/Muslims for easy conversion
• The revolt began in the Bengal army as high caste identity was still maintained, leading to more unity among sepoys.
• Political reasons:
• The majority of sepoys in the Bengal army were from Awadh and nearly every family in Awadh sent a member to the EIC army.
• Annexation of Awadh was seen as a betrayal and hurt the loyalty of the sepoys.
• Agrarian reasons:
• Britsih did a summary settlement in Awadh that determined the land revenue demand without proper field surveys leading to high land revenue demand.
• In northwest provinces, field surveys were improperly dealing with high land revenue demand.
• When peasants could not pay land revenue, they lost land in the government auctions
• Peasants became indebted to moneylenders and then lost lands due to defaulting on loans.
• Sepoy was a peasant in uniform since he came from a peasant family therefore his loyalty was hurt by British policy.
• Therefore the issue of cartridges was only a trigger that gave voice to multiple grievances.
• Reasons for civil rebellion:
• Grievances of feudal elements:
• Loss of kingdoms due to annexation like the doctrine of lapse led to grievances among ex-rulers and nobility.
• therefore they offered leadership in the revolt.
• For example:
• Nana saheb in Kanpur was the adopted son of Bajirao-II and was denied a pension.
• He was assisted by Tatia Tope.
• Began Hazat Mahal in Lucknow(wife of ex-nawab Wazid Shah) ruled in name of young son during the revolt.
• Khan Bahadur Khan, a Rohilla afghan in Bareilly.
• Rani Lakshmi Bai in Jansi whose adopted son was not recognized as the next ruler.
• Kunwar Singh of Jagdishpur, Bihar was a big Zamindar and local Raja whose estates were taken over.
• BS Zafar as Canning announced in 1956 would now be called a prince and he to vacate red fort and shift to humbler Qutab, therefore losing of status.
• Grievances of Talukdars:
• Application of Mahalwari settlement in north-west provinces and Awadh led to the last of lands/estates as ryots were made legal and owner leading to loss of economic status.
• Their private forts were demolished and their private army was disbanded, leading to a loss of political and military status.
• British rule of law hurt their social status.
• Therefore Talukdars provided leadership to the revolt.
• Peasants and Artisans:
• Destruction of the handicraft sector due to cheaper machine-manufactured goods imported from Britain hurt artisans' livelihoods.
• Landlessness for peasants due to high land revenue demand and indebtedness to moneylenders.
• As they lost land in government action on non-payment of land revenue and lost land to money lenders due to default on loans that were given at very high-interest rates.
• The new British courts supported money lenders, therefore moneylenders also became targets during the 1857 revolt.
• The goal of the revolt was to restore the pre-British order.

Reasons for the victory of the British in the 1857 revolt 

• Sepoys lacked financial resources.
• Lack of modern weapons and training among peasants
• British had better leadership and a strong centralized bureaucracy, army, and an effective communication system leading to efficient decision-making and coordination.
• Tactical mistakes as Sepoys focused on coming to Delhi, therefore movement did not spread properly and the defeat of Delhi meant the defeat of revolt.
• Lack of unified leadership on the Indian side as there were multiple regional leaders and no central leadership, therefore coordination suffered.
• Due to the localized nature of the uprising British could defeat rebels one after other.
• The whole EIC army did not revolt, the Bombay and Madras regiments were quiet, while Punjabi and Gurkha actively helped the British.
• The civil rebellion was limited to mainly north and central India and mainly minor participation elsewhere.

Was the 1857 revolt a war of independence? 

• The colonial view is that the 1857 revolt was mainly a sepoy mutiny due there service-related grievances and the civil uprising was nothing but mob violence due to the breakdown of law and order.
• However, VD Savarkar called it the Indian war of independence and fought for Swadrama and Swaraj.
• Karl Marx also argued that it was a nationalist revolt.
• The mainstream stand is that it was much more than mutiny but modern nationalism was not present therefore not a proper war of independence based on modern nationalism.
• The whole of India did not participate and those sections that benefited from colonial rule did not participate.
• For example, Zamindar of Bengal became a big landlord after a permanent settlement in 1793, therefore stayed loyal to the British.
• Those rulers who did not lose their kingdoms stayed neutral.
• Western-educated gained from jobs created by British rule and believed that British rule will modernize India.
• Talukdars who did not lose their estate stayed loyal.
• In Ryotwadi areas like Sindh, Coorg, Assam, and Bengal ryot benefited as they made landowners.
• There was no proper planning and the revolt was spontaneous bursts.
• There was no modern alternative in form of democracy.
• Yes, modern nationalism was absent however common enemy was there.
• Common hatred was there against disruption brought by British rule.
• That is a common feeling that British rule is immoral
• A common fear of threat to religion.
• Sepoys' declaration in Delhi went beyond their selfish grievances and listed the following reasons for mutiny:
• There was high land revenue demand.
• Increase chowkidar tax.
• Increase in unemployment of artisans and learned men.
• Tol tax for travelling on public roads.
• Decrease in the status of in status of Indian ruling class.
• Therefore sepoys were fighting all Indians.
• The common goal of restoring moral order was disturbed by British rule.
• Hindu-Muslim unity was there with belief that Hindustan is for Hindus and Muslims.
• All agreed among rebels that Delhi should be the capital and BS Zafar as emperor.
• Rebels did not desire the dictatorship of an all-Indian monarch, that does not desire a 17th-century unitary structure but wanted decentralized polity with real power at the province level.
• Therefore desired a form of federalism.
• Rebels did not want the British not just out of their areas but out of Hindustan.
• Also this time there was communication between regional leaders
• It was a movement of the masses and not of elites:
• Elites were forced to take up leadership in many cases by those who revolted like BS Zafar, Nana Saheb, and Jhansi ki Ranni, therefore initiative was of the common man and in many cases, peasants and artisans continued revolts.
• The main initiative was of sepoy and he was a peasant in uniform
• Therefore 1857 revolt was led by peasants.

Why 1857 revolt is an important watershed in Indian history? 

• Political impact:
• British became distrustful of Indians, and authoritarianism and racism increased.
• Indian were now considered racially inferior and beyond reforms and the British did not want Indians in senior positions, therefore did not want to share power with Indians.
• They wanted stronger control over India, however, this frustrated educated Indians who wanted a share in power and this anger led to the starting modern nationalism-based Indian national movement.
• EIC was blamed for the mismanagement of Indian affairs and public pressure in Britain increased in favour of ending absentee sovereignty(as the real sovereign, the British government ruled India through an agent EIC).
• Therefore GOI act of 1858 ended EIC rule and declared queen victoria as the sovereign ruler of India with direct rule over British India and paramountcy over Indian princes.
• Therefore queen was now the empress of India and Mughal rule ended legally with BS Zafar being deported to Burma and pensioned off.
• Queen's proclamation of November 1858, promised religious tolerance and that India would be governed as per its customs and traditions, therefore spread of Christianity and socio-religious reforms took a backseat.

The topic of the next class: administrative impact of the 1857 revolt.

Here are 40 multiple-choice questions based on the class notes:

1. When did Mangal Pandey fire at British officers?

a) 19 March 1857

b) 10 May 1857

c) 11 May 1857

d) 20 September 1857

Answer: a) 19 March 1857

2. Who was proclaimed as the emperor of Hindustan in Delhi during the revolt?

a) Nana Saheb

b) Tatia Tope

c) Rani Lakshmi Bai

d) Bahadur Shah Zafar

Answer: d) Bahadur Shah Zafar

3. What were the reasons for the sepoy mutiny?

a) Racism

b) Economic reasons

c) Socio-religious reasons

d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

4. What was the fear created by Christian missionaries in the barracks?

a) Fear of forced conversion

b) Fear of losing caste and religious customs

c) Fear of destruction of traditional customs

d) Fear of religious taxation

Answer: a) Fear of forced conversion

5. What was the immediate trigger for the sepoy mutiny?

a) Discrimination in salaries and pension

b) Rumors of mixing cow and pig bone dust in flour

c) Annexation of Awadh

d) Loss of kingdoms due to annexation

Answer: b) Rumors of mixing cow and pig bone dust in flour

6. What was the goal of the 1857 revolt?

a) Restoration of the pre-British order

b) Establishment of a democratic government

c) Independence from British rule

d) Economic reforms for peasants

Answer: a) Restoration of the pre-British order

7. What were the reasons for the victory of the British in the revolt?

a) Lack of financial resources among sepoys

b) Better leadership and coordination by the British

c) Lack of modern weapons and training among rebels

d) All of the above

Answer: d) All of the above

8. According to the colonial view, what was the 1857 revolt mainly seen as?

a) War of independence

b) Sepoy mutiny

c) Civil uprising

d) Mob violence

Answer: b) Sepoy mutiny

9. Who called the 1857 revolt the "Indian war of independence"?

a) VD Savarkar

b) Karl Marx

c) Mahatma Gandhi

d) Jawaharlal Nehru

Answer: a) VD Savarkar

10. What was the mainstream view regarding the 1857 revolt as a war of independence?

a) It was a proper war of independence based on modern nationalism

b) It was mainly a sepoy mutiny with no nationalist motivations

c) It had elements of nationalism but lacked proper planning and coordination

d) It was a localized uprising with no unified leadership

Answer: c) It had elements of nationalism but lacked proper planning and coordination

11. What impact did the 1857 revolt have on British attitudes towards Indians?

a) Increased trust and cooperation

b) Authoritarianism and racism

c) Recognition of Indian nationalism

d) Promotion of Indian leaders

Answer: b) Authoritarianism and racism

12. Who was declared the sovereign ruler of India after the end of EIC rule?

a) Queen Victoria

b) Bahadur Shah Zafar

c) Nana Saheb

d) Tatia Tope

Answer: a) Queen Victoria

13. What impact did the 1857 revolt have on the governance of India?

a) Increased power-sharing with

 Indians

b) Decreased influence of the British government

c) Direct rule by Queen Victoria

d) Restoration of Mughal rule

Answer: c) Direct rule by Queen Victoria

14. Which document promised religious tolerance and governance according to Indian customs and traditions?

a) Queen's proclamation of November 1858

b) Indian National Congress resolution

c) Government of India Act 1858

d) Revolt manifesto of 1857

Answer: a) Queen's proclamation of November 1858

15. What was the topic of the next class based on the class notes?

a) Economic impact of the 1857 revolt

b) Social impact of the 1857 revolt

c) Administrative impact of the 1857 revolt

d) Cultural impact of the 1857 revolt

Answer: c) Administrative impact of the 1857 revolt

16. Who was the adopted son of Bajirao-II and a prominent leader in the revolt?

a) Nana Saheb

b) Tatia Tope

c) Rani Lakshmi Bai

d) Bahadur Shah Zafar

Answer: a) Nana Saheb

17. Which region experienced a summary settlement and high land revenue demand?

a) Awadh

b) Bengal

c) Delhi

d) Punjab

Answer: a) Awadh

18. What impact did the revolt have on the handicraft sector in India?

a) Increased production and growth

b) Preservation of traditional crafts

c) Destruction due to imported machine-manufactured goods

d) Modernization and innovation

Answer: c) Destruction due to imported machine-manufactured goods

19. What was the perception of British rule among the rural population during the revolt?

a) Support and cooperation

b) Fear and resistance

c) Indifference and apathy

d) Enthusiasm and excitement

Answer: b) Fear and resistance

20. What was the impact of British policy on the caste and religious customs of sepoys?

a) Preservation and respect

b) Modification and adaptation

c) Suppression and dismissal

d) Promotion and celebration

Answer: c) Suppression and dismissal

21. Which region did the 1857 revolt primarily take place in?

a) North and Central India

b) South India

c) Eastern India

d) Western India

Answer: a) North and Central India

22. What was the British perception of the 1857 revolt as a war of independence?

a) Recognition and support

b) Denial and suppression

c) Celebration and commemoration

d) Indifference and dismissal

Answer: b) Denial and suppression

23. Who provided leadership to the revolt among the ex-rulers and nobility?

a) Nana Saheb

b) Tatia Tope

c) Rani Lakshmi Bai

d) Khan Bahadur Khan

Answer: a) Nana Saheb

24. What impact did the 1857 revolt have on the political status of talukdars?

a) Consolidation of power

b) Preservation of privileges

c) Loss of land and political status

d) Modernization and innovation

Answer: c) Loss of land and political status

25. What impact did the revolt have on the socio-religious reforms initiated by the British?

a) Acceleration and expansion

b) Preservation and support

c) Backseat and delay

d) Promotion and recognition

Answer: c) Backseat and delay

26. What was the fear created among the rural society by the arrival of Christian missionaries?

a) Loss of political power

b) Destruction of traditional customs

c) Imposition of higher taxes

d

) Exploitation by moneylenders

Answer: b) Destruction of traditional customs

27. What was the initial response of the EIC to Indian religious customs and traditions?

a) Complete assimilation

b) Partial acceptance

c) Respect and preservation

d) Suppression and modification

Answer: c) Respect and preservation

28. What triggered the revolt according to the class notes?

a) Economic reasons

b) Political reasons

c) Socio-religious reasons

d) Cartridges and religious beliefs

Answer: d) Cartridges and religious beliefs

29. Which region did the majority of sepoys in the Bengal army come from?

a) Awadh

b) Punjab

c) Bengal

d) Madras

Answer: a) Awadh

30. What impact did the annexation of Awadh have on the loyalty of the sepoys?

a) Strengthened loyalty

b) No impact on loyalty

c) Decreased loyalty

d) Mixed reactions

Answer: c) Decreased loyalty

31. What was the highest post an Indian sepoy could reach in the EIC army?

a) Captain

b) Colonel

c) Subadar

d) General

Answer: c) Subadar

32. What impact did the reduction of caste privileges have on the sepoys?

a) Strengthened caste identity

b) Increased loyalty to the empire

c) Decreased loyalty to religion

d) Improved financial benefits

Answer: c) Decreased loyalty to religion

33. What was the perception of Indians by the British according to the class notes?

a) Equal and respected

b) Inferior and racially discriminated

c) Superior and admired

d) Indifferent and ignored

Answer: b) Inferior and racially discriminated

34. What impact did the revolt have on British rule in India?

a) Strengthened control and authority

b) Weakened control and authority

c) Promoted reforms and equality

d) Resulted in withdrawal of British rule

Answer: a) Strengthened control and authority

35. What was the goal of the revolt according to the class notes?

a) Complete independence from British rule

b) Restoration of the pre-British order

c) Establishment of a democratic government

d) Removal of British officials from India

Answer: b) Restoration of the pre-British order

36. Who captured Delhi during the 1857 revolt?

a) Nana Saheb

b) Tatia Tope

c) Rani Lakshmi Bai

d) Bahadur Shah Zafar

Answer: d) Bahadur Shah Zafar

37. Which region experienced the loss of kingdoms due to annexation and played a significant role in the revolt?

a) Awadh

b) Punjab

c) Bengal

d) Madras

Answer: a) Awadh

38. What impact did the revolt have on the relationship between Hindus and Muslims?

a) Unity and cooperation

b) Division and conflict

c) Assimilation and integration

d) Indifference and isolation

Answer: a) Unity and cooperation

39. What impact did the revolt have on the perception of British rule among the Indian population?

a) Acceptance and admiration

b) Rejection and resistance

c) Indifference and apathy

d) Collaboration and cooperation

Answer: b) Rejection and resistance

40. What impact did the revolt have on the modern Indian national movement?

a) Suppression and discouragement

b) Acceleration and inspiration

c) Irrelevance and dismissal

d) Division and fragmentation

Answer: b) Acceleration and inspiration

1. Discuss the factors that led to the outbreak of the 1857 revolt. How did socio-religious, economic, and political reasons contribute to the rebellion? Explain with relevant examples. (Answer)

The 1857 revolt, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny or the First War of Independence, was the result of various factors that culminated in a widespread rebellion against British rule in India. The revolt was triggered by a combination of socio-religious, economic, and political reasons.

Socio-religious factors played a significant role in fueling the revolt. Initially, the East India Company (EIC) respected and preserved the religious customs of the Indian sepoys. However, as the empire expanded and diverse communities joined the EIC army, it became challenging to uphold the religious customs of the upper castes. The EIC attempted to create a uniform culture in the army, reducing caste privileges and undermining religious symbols and practices. This led to a sense of fear and apprehension among the Indian sepoys that their religion was under threat. The introduction of socio-religious reforms by the British, such as the abolition of Sati and the Widow Remarriage Act, further escalated these fears and eroded traditional customs. The resentment against the erosion of religious and cultural practices played a significant role in uniting the sepoys against the British.

Economic reasons also contributed to the outbreak of the revolt. The sepoys faced discrimination in terms of salaries and pensions compared to their British counterparts. The reduction in allowances for service outside their regions and the overall decrease in their salaries added to their grievances. The high war expenditure of the EIC led to the reduction of sepoys' salaries, further exacerbating their financial hardships. Additionally, the loss of land by peasants due to high land revenue demands and their indebtedness to moneylenders created an atmosphere of discontent and unrest. The economic struggles faced by the sepoys, who often came from peasant backgrounds, intensified their grievances against British policies.

Political reasons, particularly the annexation of Awadh, also played a significant role in triggering the revolt. Awadh was a region from which a majority of sepoys in the Bengal army hailed, and the annexation of Awadh was seen as a betrayal by the sepoys. The loss of kingdoms due to annexation and the grievances of ex-rulers and nobility further fueled the rebellion. Leaders such as Nana Saheb, Rani Lakshmi Bai, and Kunwar Singh emerged from these regions to provide leadership to the revolt. The sepoys and the civil population joined forces to challenge British rule and restore the pre-British order.

Overall, the 1857 revolt was a culmination of various socio-religious, economic, and political grievances. The erosion of religious customs, economic hardships, and political betrayals created a climate of discontent and rebellion. The revolt marked a turning point in Indian history as it led to a heightened sense of national consciousness and resistance against British rule.

2. Analyze the reasons for the victory of the British in the 1857 revolt. Discuss the factors that contributed to the British triumph over the rebel forces. (Answer)

The British victory in the 1857 revolt can be attributed to several factors that favored their cause and weakened the rebel forces. Despite facing a widespread rebellion, the British were able to regain control and suppress the uprising. The following reasons contributed to the British triumph:

1. Financial resources: The sepoys lacked significant financial resources, making it difficult for them to sustain a prolonged rebellion. On the other hand, the British had access to vast financial resources that enabled them to mobilize their forces, procure weapons, and sustain a prolonged military campaign.

2. Superior military strength: The British had a well-trained and disciplined army

 equipped with modern weapons, whereas the rebel forces, consisting mostly of peasants and sepoys, lacked modern weaponry and proper training. The British were able to effectively utilize their military strength to counter the rebel forces.

3. Leadership and organization: The British had experienced and capable leaders who provided strong leadership during the revolt. They had a well-established centralized bureaucracy, army, and an efficient communication system, which allowed for effective decision-making and coordination. In contrast, the rebel forces lacked a unified leadership and faced coordination challenges due to multiple regional leaders.

4. Tactical mistakes by the rebels: The focus of the rebel forces on capturing Delhi led to a localized uprising, allowing the British to defeat the rebels one after another. The defeat of Delhi became a significant setback for the rebel cause, as it weakened their position and demoralized their forces.

5. Limited participation and support: The revolt was mainly concentrated in northern and central India, with limited participation and support from other regions. The Bombay and Madras regiments remained quiet, while Punjabi and Gurkha forces actively supported the British. The lack of widespread participation and support limited the rebel forces' ability to challenge British control.

6. Suppression of civil rebellion: While the sepoys' revolt was widespread, the civil rebellion was limited mainly to specific regions. The British were able to suppress the civil rebellion through a combination of military force, divide-and-rule tactics, and appeasement strategies.

In conclusion, the victory of the British in the 1857 revolt can be attributed to their financial resources, superior military strength, effective leadership, tactical advantages, limited rebel participation, and successful suppression of the civil rebellion. These factors collectively contributed to the British triumph over the rebel forces and the restoration of their control over India.

3. Discuss the significance of the 1857 revolt as a watershed moment in Indian history. How did it impact Indian politics and contribute to the growth of nationalism? (Answer)

The 1857 revolt was a significant watershed moment in Indian history, marking a turning point in the relationship between India and British colonial rule. The revolt had profound implications for Indian politics and played a crucial role in the growth of Indian nationalism. The following points highlight its significance:

1. End of the East India Company rule: The revolt exposed the mismanagement of Indian affairs by the East India Company (EIC), leading to increased public pressure in Britain to end the EIC's rule. As a result, the Government of India Act of 1858 abolished EIC rule and transferred power to the British Crown. Queen Victoria was declared the sovereign ruler of India, with direct control over British India and paramountcy over the Indian princes. This marked the formal end of EIC's reign and the beginning of direct British rule in India.

2. Rise of Indian nationalism: The revolt served as a catalyst for the growth of Indian nationalism. The oppressive and authoritarian response of the British to the rebellion, coupled with their racial superiority and discriminatory policies, fueled the sentiment of Indian identity and a shared struggle against colonial rule. The revolt awakened a sense of national consciousness and unity among Indians, laying the foundation for future nationalist movements.

3. Emergence of Indian leaders: The revolt provided a platform for the emergence of Indian leaders who played crucial roles in the subsequent nationalist movements. Figures such as Rani Lakshmi Bai, Nana Saheb, Kunwar Singh, and Bahadur Shah Zafar became symbols of resistance and inspired future generations of Indian leaders. Their leadership during the revolt and their subsequent efforts to challenge British rule contributed to the growth of Indian political consciousness.

4. Shift in British policies: The revolt prompted a shift in British policies towards India. The Queen's Proclamation of November 1858 promised religious tolerance and the governance of India as per its customs and traditions.

 This signaled a more conciliatory approach by the British and a temporary retreat from aggressive evangelization and socio-religious reforms. However, it also reinforced the British desire for control and limited Indian participation in governance, leading to growing frustrations among educated Indians.

5. Influence on future movements: The revolt left a lasting impact on subsequent nationalist movements in India. It demonstrated the potential power of collective resistance against colonial rule and inspired future generations of freedom fighters. The memories and lessons of the revolt served as a rallying point for future nationalist leaders and movements, contributing to the eventual struggle for independence.

In conclusion, the 1857 revolt was a watershed moment in Indian history, with far-reaching implications for Indian politics and the growth of nationalism. It marked the end of the East India Company's rule, fueled Indian nationalism, produced influential leaders, influenced British policies, and set the stage for future resistance against colonial rule. The revolt's significance lies not only in its immediate consequences but also in its long-term impact on the Indian struggle for independence.